Parencephalons can to prevent communicate, having cut except visually decussation Also a corpus collosum. If now to repeat the previous experiment, the surprising will be taped Feature. The cat, seeing the right eye where have put sausage, will not find It by means of the left. Besides, as soon as to it will occlude a bandage a right eye, It completely loses interest to sausage. It is possible to think that she has forgotten about it Existence. But is not present, has not forgotten. Sausage remembers the right hemisphere, and left, Which now looks at the world through the left eye, is simple anything about it does not know. After a section of a corpus collosum of a hemisphere have no possibility to exchange News. Is not subject to doubt that this operation transforms the cat’s brain in Two independent brains.

Chickens just hatching from egg do not seem helpless beings. They perfectly run, are able to peck a forage, know that is necessary to keep more close To mother, everywhere to follow after it. To study in it to them it is not necessary. These They receive abilities in a ready kind. The excellent formation inherited, Has only one small defect – chickens do not know, how their mother looks. It They should learn.

At chickens it is considered to be mother the first moving subject which is possible to them To see in life. When a hen itself nasizhivaet eggs, kids know only the native Mother. But if they were born in a couveuse, over them it is possible to play the malicious Joke. At chickens the first 8-12 days of life the brain corpus collosum does not function yet. Therefore in their small heads at this time exists as though two independent Brain. If in the first day of life to kids to stick the right eye and to let out to them Hen, one half of their brain will very quickly get used to consider as her mother. On The second day of life chickens can stick the left eye and to abandon in a society of a duck. Now other part of their brain begins to consider as mother krjakuhu. As a result kids, Depending on what eye look at the world, will consider as the mother That a hen, a duck. Even in a tiny brain of a chicken two chicken can find room Persons.

The Cat, a dog or a monkey after dissociation of cerebral hemispheres and dissection Crossroads of optic nerves seem more diligent pupils, than they were Before operation carrying out. Tolerating a bandage from one eye on another, them it is possible Simultaneously to train in two various programs. Such animal looking on The world the left eye, it is possible to learn to discover that feeder on which cover it is drawn Circle, it is joyful to mew, when light is switched on, and to press a pedal of the left Paw, when light will start to nictate to discover the feeder with nutrition. A same animal, Looking at the world the right eye, it is possible to learn to choose the feeder, on which cover The triangle is drawn, is furious oshcherivatsja at ignition of light and to switch off the right Paw a current to avoid its impact when light will start to nictate. You will look on Similar metamorphoses also it is not believed that they are caused by transmission of a bandage from one Eyes on another. It is easier to admit that have simply changed an animal.

Four-footed it is impossible to learn to carry out on the same stimulus Different reactions depending on what eye they accept it. Even After many weeks of training such pupils will constantly confuse tasks. To the operated monkey it nothing to confuse. Its right hemisphere knows nothing about The volume that sees the left eye, and left – on what looks the right. That is why it conducts Itself as two different monkeys. The surgeon is capable to transform one brain into two enough High-grade and absolutely independent from each other a brain. Then in one cat’s Body there are two different cats, in one monkey’s skin – two different monkeys.

Almost half a century ago neurosurgeons of the USA began to develop section operation Corpus collosum at the person. It assumed to use for the help to patients, Suffering serious forms of the epilepsy which are not giving in to other means of treatment. Usually such patients in a brain have a painful locus of the raised epileptic Activity. When excitation increases in it to a limen, it extends At first on one hemisphere, and then through a corpus collosum passes to the inverse The brain party, grasping another. The hardest epileptic as a result educes Attack.

Surgeons counted that, having cut a corpus collosum, they will interrupt diffusion pathes Epileptic activity, will confine to its one hemisphere and with that will seriously soften Clinical course. Hopes of doctors have justified in much bigger degree, than they Expected. And still to this serious and dangerous operation resort very seldom. Psychologists Could not bypass the attention cases of so radical change of a design Brain. The majority of people, podvergshihsja to a corpus collosum section, have been subjected To careful all-round inspection. It has allowed to learn a lot of new about Features of interaction of the big hemispheres of a human brain.

Certainly, before to risk to dip a knife in a brain of the person, operation promodelirovali On different animals – cats, dogs, monkeys. Most of all scientists has surprised That after such essential alteration of a brain the behaviour of animals did not vary. Observing of them, it is absolutely impossible to solve, at what of three cats or monkeys The corpus collosum is dissect. While sense bodys – eyes, ears, tangoreceptors Skins – keep ability to supply both hemispheres approximately the identical information, The animal behaves as quite normal.

Macrothermophiluses of a snake krajty are among the most dangerous. Action Their poison it is similar with kurare. The toxic material krajta hammers in keyholes On a synaptic membrane of a cell-addressee also does not give possibility to unlock latches By means of the keys designed for them – moleculas of a mediator of Acetylcholinum. A poison formozskogo krajta so it is strongly bridged to the latch what to part them it is almost impossible. On it materials do not react even, are capable to solve the excitatory covers. Will be blasted All other parts of a cerebral meal, and only tiny slices of a membrane will protect From dissolution the molecula which has stuck to them of a poison. By means of a poison krajtov it is possible to “pick at random” From synapses sufficient for research quantity of latches. Have already counted up, That on a synaptic membrane having the area about 200 billion square angstrem, – 3 million doors and at everyone the latch. They have the dimension no more 7-10 square angstrem, means, all together are not engaged and 0,01-0,02 percent The synaptic membrane areas.

The Latch represents the large albuminous molecula which has been built in in a depth Semifluid membrane of a neurone. On a surface its only small part looks out – The field of a molecula carrying an electrical charge. A latch and key configuration Are that that they, as the splinters of the broken glass combined properly, Form a single whole and thanks to electrical charges are strong kept The friend near the friend. A mediator molecula, being bridged to an albuminous molecula of the latch, Forces last to variate the form, thus in a membrane side it is discovered It is time, allowing the ions which are in a synaptic gap, to inpour into a neurone Or to the ions which are in a neurone to pour out outside. Depending on that, For what ions the mediator unlocks doors and in what direction they dvizhutsja, The excitatory cell or provokes or, on the contrary, zatormazhivaetsja.

One of the major mediators is Acetylcholinum. Is not present on our planet of the such The beings which excitatory system uses chemical synapses, but has no Acetylcholinum. Probably, it was the first mediator framed by the nature. Its wide Use is bound, probably, that it is constructed simply enough, easily The organism is synthesised also does not test a disadvantage of raw materials necessary for it.

Arrival of nervous impulse to nerve termination gives the chance to throw out in Synaptic gap of 5 million moleculas of Acetylcholinum, however on direct nazacheniju It will be used no more quarters, but also it is quite enough of it to cause Neurone-addressee excitation.

Acetylcholinum Molecula represents itself a chain consisting of atoms of oxygen, Nitrogen and 5 atoms of Carboneum. To the atom of nitrogen carrying a positive charge, fasten Three metilnye bunches (atom of Carboneum with three atoms of hydrogen attached to it). This massive head of a molecula carries out function of a small beard of a key. It gets In a special excavation of the latch also it is kept by its negative charge.

About the latch device it was possible to learn something, having tried to discover its various Master keys. These researches have confirmed importance of electrical charges of keys. Acetylcholinum molecula it is easy to deprive of a positive charge if atom of nitrogen to change Carboneum. Such master key is capable to unlock the latch, but reacts in 12 thousand times More weakly, than the present Acetylcholinum.

Use of raspingly made master keys has confirmed that a latch foramen on To the dimension precisely corresponds to a key small beard. If any of metilnyh head bunches Acetylcholinum to change with larger etilnuju, consisting of two atoms of Carboneum And five atoms of hydrogen, such molecula in 3-5 times unlocks ionic doors is worse. The cause is clear – the key became great and hardly enters into a keyhole. At To changing of two or all three metilnyh bunches strongly enlarged key any more is not located In a keyhole and membranous doors does not unlock.

In the same way it is possible to spoil a key, having reduced at a molecula of Acetylcholinum the dimension Its heads. It is easy to notice that all three it metilnye bunches can be changed Atoms of hydrogen. Changing by hydrogen of one metilnoj bunches reduces productivity Mediator in 50 times, two – in 500, and all three – in 40 thousand times. The key easily enters In a keyhole, but the head became too small, it “hljabaet”, being turned In the latch, also cannot unlock it.

Acetylcholinum has appeared a key with two small beards. The second small beard is the atom The oxygen, a carrying negative charge. The distance between small beards is known: Atoms of oxygen and nitrogen parts two atoms of Carboneum and they are removed from each other On 4,7 angstrema. It is easy to extend a molecula, having inserted into a chain in addition one, Two or more atoms of Carboneum, and it completely will spoil a key. Such molecula Will not enter into a keyhole, and doors will not be discovered.

Knowing the key dimensions, to select to the latch a master key easy. Atom of nitrogen in a molecula Acetylcholinum it is possible to change with any another if only it carried a positive charge Also it has appeared it is unbound from oxygen two atoms of Carboneum.

Physicians were especially interested by master keys which, as well as kurare, are capable reliably To put out of action the latch. It is necessary for surgeons, that for the period of the most complicated operations Completely obezdvizhit the person or to eliminate convulsive reductions of muscles.

Unexpectedly very effective there were large moleculas similar to Acetylcholinum Materials. Especially appreciable effect was given by moleculas with two atoms of nitrogen On the extremities if between them there were 10 or 16 atoms of Carboneum. It is so much – It is no more and not less. Not at once it was possible to solve the mechanism of their action. And a solution It was simple. Doors and consequently also latches, are not scattered on a membrane anyhow, And are grouped on four. If keyholes to bridge straight lines – The square will turn out. At a long master key each of two atoms of nitrogen, as a small beard Key, gets to a separate keyhole. It efficacyy speaks Master keys. Unlike moleculas kurare the master key puts out of action at once two latches. Smaller from keys gets to the latches lying on any of the parties of a square, and more Long that popat both small beards in keyholes, should lay down on it Diagonals. Knowing the dimension of keys, it is easy to find out and the square dimensions. In ispolzovanyh Materials between atoms of nitrogen of distance 14 and 20 angstrem. Hence, latches Are in angles of a correct square. Everyone will easily be convinced of it itself. From Geometry we know that the hypotenuse square is peer to the sum of squares of two legs of a triangle. Let’s check in digits the come out assumption of a locating of latches:

20² ≈ 14² + 14² (twenty in a square approximately peerly Fourteen in a square plus fourteen in a square)

As you can see, the error is insignificant.

In a head brain of the person a huge role brake mediator GAMK (plays it The full name gamma aminobutyric acid). Consider that not less than third of synapses Head and a spinal cord of the person use this mediator. Unlike Acetylcholinum, Providing entering in a cell of positively charged ion of the sodium lowering The negative intracellular charge, GAMK discovers hiluses for negative The charged ion of chlorine that enhances its negative charge and interferes To excitation occurrence.

The Mechanism of action of many mediators is much more complex, than Acetylcholinum And GAMKa. For example, Noradrenalinum and Dofaminum, also rather widespread mediators, React on a cell by means of messengers. On one neurone there can be synapses, Using different mediators – brake and excitanting. They can enhance Effect each other or to quench it. Character of interaction of various synapses Defines a final effect: whether the neurone or its rest will be excited will not be broken, Whether the axon the signals to following neurones will inform or they will be intercepted Also are quenched by brake influences.

Physiologists already many managed to learn about neurone work. It seems that in general Lines we perceive, how it carries out the basic function – processing of the information, But abundantly clear that the further details about its mechanisms of the intimate To activity will be not less interesting. The neurone yet time will surprise us unimaginable Complexity of the behaviour.

Who from animals the cleverest? If to judge on Russian fairy tales, – Lisa Patrikeevna. The modern children spending of many time at the TV, will disagree with it, They will confidently tell – the jackrabbit. Well, and the expert in a zoopsychology, leaning on firm The established scientific facts, will give a palm to subhuman primates.

From ours dwelling now on the earth chetverorukih relatives and Genetical, and on a constitution of a brain the chimpanzee is the closest to us. Probably, They also are the cleverest and capable. Chimpanzees are easily trained, when we want To inoculate it any skill, and given to itself, willingly copy Our actions.

About monkey’s mind and ability to be trained knew for a long time. The French trainer P.Gashe-Suple who had, as well as our well-known compatriot V.L.Durov, taste To psychology, considered that elephants and some breeds of dog are peer to monkeys only. As criterion of mental development it used ability to be trained, More precisely – a pliability to training. As the skilled trainer, it should To know that one tricks are given to animals easier, and others it is more difficult, but could not offer The list of control problems on training to think up concrete tests, on the establishment Which it would be possible to state an exact assessment to mental faculties of animals. Instead it did an emphasis on ability of an animal to submit to will of the person, Including in this concept and their degree priruchaemosti.

Ability to be trained, undoubtedly, is one of the major characteristics Intelligence developments. About it already there was a speech. Now it is necessary to survey one From the major features of psychics of the higher animals – development in them roughly-research Activity.

At acquaintance to subhuman primates at us in the north, where they placed For a reliable lattice and carefully sponsored by the person, are released from all cares – Acquisitions of nutrition, necessity always to be on the alert, daily building Niduses for a lodging for the night that is why have enough big leisure, you are surprised, how many To time and with what self-oblivion of a chimpanzee are capable to be given to studying any Toys, any complex subject which has appeared in their cell. The most surprising, That this game, lasting hours, is carried out absolutely disinterestedly.

Certainly, having disassembled consistently six nested dolls, the monkey will not refuse to eat Nut or the plum which has appeared on a place seventh, but the interest to a toy at once Radically varies. The animal will not potter long any more with nested dolls, To separate them and to try to put again, to thrust one half in an excavation Another to investigate this excavation a dactyl, stukat nested dolls the friend about the friend or To throw on a floor, listening to notes which they emit. Now, having received Toy in the collected kind, a chimpanzee, without lingering, will reach plum, If it there is put, and will lose interest to nested dolls. And if inside Will find nothing, can become angry outright, but game with nested dolls already Will not renew.

Curiosity or inquisitiveness is expressed at monkeys in roughly-research Activity? As scientists in the researches went down downwards On a phylogenetic ladder of animal kingdom, they have found that reactions Animals on novelty, on new and not clear it the phenomena or subjects vary. From roughly-research they gradually turn in purely rough. The phenomenon it is easily explainable. Degradation of roughly-research activity It is caused by many circumstances.

The First cause purely technical. The lowest animals have no the necessary Adaptations for realisation of research activity. Put Before a dog a nested doll also observe that it begins to do with it. In comparison With a monkey of its possibility are scanty. The majority of dogs will confine that carefully Will sniff at a toy and if will not find an odour of a food, other dog or any Beast, to a nested doll interest immediately will lose. The rare dog will consider necessary liznut it to take in dens or to tamper with a paw. That’s all its research possibilities.

The Second cause – a brain level of development. To be engaged in the research Activity, it is necessary to be able to move with gyruses, and for this purpose it is necessary, That they were. Other changes are bound to deficiency of cerebral activity also Roughly-research behaviour. Wide inquisitiveness, which We observed at monkeys, replace uzkospetsificheskie interests. Less educed animals Seldom ask a question: “What is it?” Usually them interests: whether And in a breeding season: whether

What level of development of a brain is necessary for realisation of orientation responses? On this question scientists do not have common opinion. One explorers bind appearance At animal typical orientation responses with the beginning of formation of a cortex of the head Brain, that is since reptiles. Others come to a conclusion about existence Orientative reflex already at a stage of fishes, the higher molluscums, hexapods, Crustacea And hearts.

Observations over ants-scouts in terrain belonging to them show, What is the attention involves all – nutrition, enemies, a road condition, above-ground and underground Constructions, building stuffs, presence of food stores on the mediate Bases, counter ants-furazhiry and ants-scouts. Not less visually shows Orientation response at a sea worm polihety-nereis when it surveys The mink who has met to it.

Abilities to notice novelty to answer it roughly-research It is not necessary to be trained by reaction. Animals receive this ability from the parents In a ready kind. I.P.Pavel was completely agree that the rough Jerk – reaction congenital, but considered that it occupies as though the mediate Position between conditional and unconditional jerks as it is easily depressed (zatormazhivaetsja) as a new stimulus, repeating, becomes The usual.

As were convinced of laboratories Pavlova, the conditioned reflex is developed, when In a cerebral cortex meet two excitation. The first – more weak, caused The stimulus, which any reactions, except an orientative reflex, not Causes, the second – stronger, bound to action of an unconditional stimulus – Defensive, alimentary or other important reaction for an organism. Involuntarily There is a question: and that will be if to spend combinations of two stimuluses causing Only an orientative reflex?

In laboratories Pavlova in the beginning of expansion of work on brain studying Have perceived that the conditioned reflex is a special case rather rasprostrannogo the phenomena: Formations of time communication. When we get acquainted with the new person, involuntarily We peer into his face, we remember separate lines. Their combination is unique, It is characteristic only for the given concrete person. From these lines, signs The mode of this person arises and is stored in a brain. Therefore, having met it Again, we unmistakably learn it. And the mode is formed thanks to formation Sets of time communications between the separate stimuluses, separate signs: The form of the person, in the dimension and colour of eyes, the form and in nose size, character of a flexure Brows, features of labiums, forehead, a chin, cheekbones, eyelashes, ears, colours of a skin : Even features of a hair, and for men and vegetation on a chin and on the top To labium though these signs are rather changeable, by all means enter into a mode of everyone The person.

Whether It is possible to prove, what exactly such path thanks to set formation Time communications the mode is formed? It appears, it is possible! In the nature it is very rare The solitary stimuluses react. Usually any phenomenon falls upon an animal The whole complex of the interconnected signals. Therefore along with the usual simple Stimuluses of phylum of a call, action kasalki, light flashes in laboratories I.P. Pavlova the complexes compounded of several similar began to be used Stimuluses. It has appeared that conditioned reflex formation on a simple stimulus Anything essential does not differ from formation of conditioned reflexes on their complex. Unless at use of complexes they are developed slightly faster Also happen stronger, than on the solitary stimuluses.

Studying conditioned reflexes on a complex, physiologists have, of course, taken an interest, As animals react to its separate components. We will assume that jerk It was developed on a simultaneous complex – joint action of three stimuluses – A call, kasalki and light of an electrical lamp. Assay of these components, when Jerk on a complex has already well become stronger, has taped an interesting detail: light Caused very weak jerk, actions kasalki – slightly larger, and a call – Almost same jerk, as the whole complex.

Explorers have been prepared for similar results. For a long time already it was known, That the conditioned reflex size is in known dependence on character The conditioned excitator. Usually on visual stimuluses if they do not change The situation in space, and on weak dermal stimuluses conditional Jerks do not reach appreciable sizes. But on sound and olfactory Stimulants the conditioned reflex size can be impressive. Pavels has explained This phenomenon physiological force of stimuluses. It has appeared that on entering In a complex the weak stimuluses tested separately, always arises Weak conditioned reflex or they are absolutely not capable it to cause.

Scientists assumed that in process of conditioned reflex consolidation on a complex Its weak components eventually will get ability to cause the conditional Jerk, and that already caused it, jerk size will increase. Check Actions of components in a month-two, in half a year of daily training of jerk On a complex not only has not taped augmentation of size of jerk at weak components, And, on the contrary, has found appreciable weakening or its disappearance on the strong Stimuluses. This process could be accelerated if from time to time to test Action of separate components, without accompanying them podrepleniem, action of the unconditional Stimulus.

At first sight, at experimental dogs the paradoxical phenomena were observed – Stimuluses, each of which, reacting separately, did not cause any alimentary Reactions, at sharing led to an appreciable hypersalivation. This results from the fact that in the course of development of a conditioned reflex of a dog begin To accept a complex as the special, independent, integrated stimulus. In To their brain “mode” of this complex is formed, and only it appears bound With the alimentary centre, only it is capable to cause in it excitation.

Studying of complex stimuluses, apparently, has dealt with a formation question Modes. However itself Pavels has not been completely satisfied by it, after all the depressing The majority of modes arises at us without participation of unconditional stimuluses. Silent Leafage rustle, original aroma and the whole complex of the diversified visual The stimuluses causing occurrence of mass of associations, frame a mode of ours Russian wood. Into it an indispensable component do not enter neither alimentary, nor defensive Elements. Therefore physiologists needed to prove, as at animals modes can To be formed without participation of unconditional stimuluses.

I.P.Pavel has been assured that the associations easily arising at people and it is good Known to psychologists, can be developed and at animals. We already mentioned that This confidence has laid down in a basis of the concept of mechanisms of the mental framed by it Activity. He assumed that at a combination of stimuluses – simultaneous Presentation of light, action kasalki and a call – between them there will be time Communications – associations and thanking it the mode of a complex stimulus will be generated. But how it to prove? How to learn, what is created in a brain of a dog? It about it not You will ask. It is necessary for dog to ask questions in such form that it could Them to answer and this answer to us would be clear. Such form of dialogue it was possible To think up.

The Scheme of experiments has appeared surprisingly simple. At first spent 20-40 Combinations of two stimuluses, for example kasalki and a call. Then, to find out, Whether time communication was formed between them, on one of these stimuluses developed Conditioned reflex then checked the second stimulus. If after development Conditioned reflex on action kasalki the call too appeared is capable to cause Conditioned reflex, it meant that between stimuluses combined earlier There was really a time communication.

New experiment has allowed to be convinced of possibility of formation of associations And to track, as they are bridged among themselves and as such chains function. In the resulted example at first there was an association a call – kasalka, then kasalka – Nutrition. The chain of two parts has as a result turned out, capable to transfer The information from the centre to the centre. Call action provokes the conforming centres The sound analyzer, from here excitation is transferred in the dermal analyzer, and Therefrom – in the alimentary centre, causing the conforming reaction of an animal.

Formation of time communications, or associations, between “indifferent” stimuluses It is carried out on the basis of the excitation caused by novelty, stimulating development Orientation response of an animal. Strong associations arise only at the advanced Beings – mammals and auks. They possess especially appreciable firmness At monkeys thanks to what their value has strongly increased in life of these animals. Thus, formation of associations probably only when a design Brain becomes enough made.

Ability of animals to use new phylum of time communications – the important stage The psychics developments, the discovered boundless open space for their informative activity. If conditioned reflex formation is mastering only the major for animals Patterns of an external world formation of associations is a catching of communications Between any phenomena which even not are not representing for them immediate interest. Wide operating by associations has made us people, having allowed to seize Speech. Associations have provided communication of separate concepts with certain words, Become notations and signals of these concepts. At the heart of our speech and ours Intellections lie the uncountable associations daily formed by a human brain. Time communication – a basis of associations, a basis of all kinds of mental activity.

Tracing, as in the course of evolution of alive organisms from the most primitive Buildings to the person any function inclusive educes, it is possible More deeply to perceive features of its realisation at the person, where experiment possibilities Are understandably rather circumscribed. Rather-physiological The approach – the important method of knowledge of the most complex functions, first of all functions Brain. It is a corner stone of evolutionary physiology. The founder This new scientific discipline which have received in our country wide recognition, The Leningrad physiologist, outstanding Soviet scientific academician L.A.Orbeli is.

Still about fifty years ago the dimensions of our country, especially all planet, depressed The immensity. Employees of Aeroflot fairly assert that development Aircraft has strongly reduced distances. For dialogue of the people it now not a hindrance. Difficulty in other – in a language barrier. Now on the earth exists more than two And a half thousand tongues – an obvious excess for the become rather small planet.

Mnogojazychie frames enormous difficulties. Scientists, which especially suffer It is necessary to get acquainted with the new information published by their colleagues operatively On the native languages. Somehow to leave this position, the European scientists Earlier used Latin. Dead tongue on which did not speak any people, Has gradually lost the value. Attempts to frame from time to time became Artificial international language. The greatest diffusion has received esperanto.

Any of artificial languages yet has not won a general recognition, and language The barrier leads till now enormous difficulties in work of the international organisations. This barrier try to overcome different pathes. To the especially difficultly small countries. Though the Danish tongue is accepted in directing bodies of European economic assemblage, On international scene Danes seldom should face the people owning Their native language. It is no wonder that persevering attempts to “jump” proceed Through a barrier. Business has reached that the Danish newspaper “Politiken” has acted as the initiator Wide discussion about transition of Danes on : English tongue.

Before brain cells there are same problems – distance and mutual understanding. The first problem as we already saw, dares simply. Long processes of the excitatory Cells – axons reach any districts of a brain. With mutual understanding. Two neurones – two independent states. The nature should invent The mechanism allowing one neurone, received the worthy information, Not only to bring of it to the notice other neurones of a brain, but also to achieve that, That they have reacted to it.

Many efforts should be spent scientist to find out as communicate between Itself neurones. For a long time already it was known that on processes of the excitatory cells, as On cable wires, bioelectric impulses run. Physiologists suspected, That this impulse, having reached a synapse – places, where a process of one excitatory cell Concerns a process or a body of other excitatory cell, causes in the next neurone Reciprocal electrical reaction. Such path of transition of excitation from a neurone on The neurone really exists at primitive animals, and the conforming synapses Even have received the name of the electrical. However at the person business is considerably .

To “Find out” the mechanism of dialogue of neurones the American, strangely enough, have helped Indians. Seizure and plunder of the great American Indian empires, begun by Ernando Cortes And Fransisko Pisarro, would proceed much faster, if at Indians not Was their terrible killing weapon – the arrows venenated with a poison. Especially it Annoyed the conquerors, trying to inpour in covered with the virginal tropical Woods continent districts. The tiny scratch made a venenate arrow, It appeared there is enough to kill the person or a horse. Coming back to Europe, Conquistadors together with the stolen oofs brought home terrifying stories About aggressive Indians, and sometimes in their chests there was also a weapon radical Inhabitants of America.

Strelnyj a poison which was used by Indians, is called kurare. It received From a cortex, roots and draws of toxicant macrotherms. With it were greased Handpieces of fighting arrows. After a while the syrup hardened, and the arrow was It is ready. Poison action affected quickly. At first there came a paralysis of a cervical musculation, Then extremities refused. Several minutes work later stopped Respiratory muscles and the wounded man died of a dyspnea.

Hardly in those days somebody seriously thought of the action mechanism Poison. It seemed to people that the word “poison” explains a cause of death more exhaustively: It was venenated, and all here. The first over ability of venenate arrows almost instantly To take away life outstanding French physiologist Claude Bernard has seriously reflected. He has been very surprised, having found that at just lost from kurare animals The boring of nerves does not cause reduction of muscles. It seemed extremely strange, As usually the muscle excised together with a nerve at the killed animal, long Time is capable to answer with reduction its boring. Carefully having studied the unusual Behaviour of a nerve-muscle preparation, the scientist with surprise was convinced that At venenated kurare an animal of a muscle did not lose ability to be reduced, and nerves – To spend excitation, that is to transfer orders of the excitatory cells. Why Nervous impulse, having reached to quite high-grade, capable to reduction of a muscle, Nevertheless does not cause its reduction? It could mean only one: orders The neurones, sent to muscles, for some reason them do not reach, probably jamming in Synapses.

Authentically it was not possible to find out anything to Claude Bernard, but he has stated a guess, Subsequently received experimental acknowledgement that the synapse works As the telegraph, only, instead of printing orders on To paper tape, issues for muscles chemical orders.

With guesses to operate much easier, than with the facts. Bernard’s assumption About means of transfer to muscles of orders of the excitatory cells have tolerated and on dialogue Neurones. But how to be risen to such research? As it was already told, inside Synapses of a cover of two contacting cells with each other it is immediate not Adjoin. If chemical “orders” really go, is faster In total here, in a narrow cleft between covers of contacting cells. But as To take therefrom this hypothetical material?

Abundantly clear that in whatever scanty doses the chemical was excreted The order, part of this material eventually should get to blood. Means, To receive a small portion of the transmitter not too. Certainly, the whole big The brain did not suit the conceived research. For experiment have chosen one From the ganglions of vegetative excitatory system which are available for all higher animals.

Research has been organised elementary simply. The excitatory stvolik, going To a sympathetic excitatory ganglion, stimulated with rhythmic impacts of the electrical Current. In reply to each electrical impulse in ganglion synapses should To issue chemical orders. To familiarise with them, it was necessary to collect Blood flowing off from a ganglion, and the saline is even better – to pass on pots of a ganglion Solution. In it it is easier, than in a blood, to grope new, a foreign substance. But As it there to find, after all it should be there in the ultramicroscopic Quantities? And how to prove that in solution there are chemical orders, Instead of any other admixings?

To answer this question, it was not necessary to frame the special sensitive The device. It managed to be found in the organism. It has appeared that, if a saline solution, Passed on ganglion pots to work on a muscle, she will answer with reduction. Some chemical orders designed for dialogue of the excitatory cells, are clear And to muscles. Thus, existence of chemical orders has been proved, and The materials used for an information transfer from a cell to a cell, have received The name of mediators. Now it is known more than 30 materials which are suspected In ability to hand over the information of neurones, also are it seems taped still far Not all.

Such a great lot of mediators What for was necessary for a brain? To answer this question now Hardly somebody can. Probably, that there was no mess. Time leakage In blood of a quantity of mediators it is possible, means, they can get On a cover of any neurone and to cause in it excitation, though the given order to it Did not design at all. Probably, therefore in each intracerebral system works Own mediator, and dialogue descends in own “national” tongue. It protects from occurrence of mess and failures in brain work, from an intervention The next neurones in work of the isolated cerebral systems.

In the chemical attitude mediators are or monoamines, that is materials, Which structure includes one amino group – atom of nitrogen with two atoms of hydrogen, Or the amino acids too by all means incorporating an amino group. The general For all these materials that their moleculas are insignificant also the atom of nitrogen entering is In an amino group, carries a positive charge. It is interesting that the same mediator It can be used both in brake and in excitative synapses.

If history of studying of mediators to tell in detail from mechanism decoding Synthesis and transportation before finding-out of principles of use, it will turn out big The adventure novel. Here it is necessary to confine only the story about most The main thing.

Synthesis of complex moleculas is possible only in the most excitatory cell, as for this purpose Participation of a cellular kernel is required. From here its production “streams” on hoses of processes The excitatory cells, reaching the most remote terminals of an axon where it is used The most part of materials delivered here.

Still about thirty years ago to anybody and to a head did not come that ancient Greeks were Are right, having assumed that nerves represent themselves pipelines. In it especially It is difficult to believe, knowing that in each nerve the large quantity tonjusenkih is packed The excitatory processes. And nevertheless they are really used as a tube, only Tubes absolutely fantastic.

Not clearly, as on such tonjusenkoj the tubule manages to a neurone to forward “Loads” simultaneously in both directions, from a cell body to its processes and from Processes to a body, moreover with various rate. Actually in an axon react Three independent transport systems. Slow drives all contents of an axon From a cell body in the terminals of processes with rate of one millimetre a day also is used For transmission of the materials necessary for vital activity of nerve fibril. Fast The transport system tolerates loads in both directions, providing the huge Rate of “transportations” – from 10 to 20 centimetres for 24 working hours. It supplies Nerve terminations raw materials from which here, on a place, moleculas will be synthesised Mediator. The secondary raw materials – used are in the opposite direction forwarded In nerve terminations of material.

In finished goods “depots” – the perfect order. Mediator moleculas are packed In special container – sinapticheskie blisters. So they remain is better, protected From destructive action of enzymes. In each nerve termination can accumulate Thousand sinapticheskih the blisters containing from 10 thousand to 100 thousand of moleculas Mediator, and for storage of an exciting mediator the usual are used Spherical blisters, and moleculas of a brake mediator are packed into the prolate Blisters-packages.

Difficulty of an information transfer consists that each excitatory cell dressed In own sound cover, wrapped up by myelin layers – a winding from shvanovskih Cells and surrounded with glial cells, is a small independent state. Whatever revolutions here descended, the rubbish from a log hut will not be born, all remains In a cell while its doors will be reliably locked. To transfer the report, The cell-correspondent should discover doors on nerve terminations of the axon And to achieve, that doors in a membrane of the addressee – the excitatory cell receiving were discovered The information.

Latches on the doors which are in the terminals of an axon, unlocks come here Nervous impulse. Doors in a synaptic gap now swing open. For one Millisecond it will be rolled out 200-300 sinapticheskih blisters. Being In them mediator moleculas are keys, capable to unlock doors on a facade The next cell.

It is necessary to tell that doors in nerve terminations of an axon densely are not occluded. And in a usual state from them is not present-is not present and the container with a mediator will fall out. 50-60 blisters get to a synaptic gap in a minute approximately. However the being In them of keys it is not enough that at cell-addressee to unlock necessary Quantity of doors and to cause its excitation. Even nervous impulse ploughs up Doors of depots of a mediator of nerve fibril it is insufficiently wide. However in them from Synaptic gap towards to containers with a mediator ions of calcium direct, Paternal door cusps reveal all more widely and more widely, and eventually will provide Exit of enough of keys.

In a synaptic gap there are no adaptations helping keys to get In a foramen of latches. Mediator moleculas extend here owing to the simple Diffusions, and only few of them casually find the latch, the others is aimless Wander in the close space and very soon appear blasted. That is why keys should be much. However the synaptic gap is not wide, And keys are quickly reached its inverse side. Nevertheless on it leaves much It is more than time, than for excitation locomotion on nerve fibril. Necessity Transition of excitation from a neurone on a neurone leads to diffusion retardation Information in a brain.

We have already got acquainted with how it was possible to disassemble a neurone and to collect for research Synapses. And time was possible to take from the excitatory cells such small detail, involuntarily napravshivalsja the question, whether will be possible to disassemble also a synapse on components. This The fantastic program also has been executed. To carry out synapse dismantle The snake poison has helped.

For the first time experience with an artificial language was organised by the professor of mechanical engineering D. Batto from university the Taffeta. It has designed the device, reformative notes of the human To speech in svisty, also broadcast them in pool to dolphins. The special have been thought up Words, not too long that they were easier for accepting, and, as a rule, Beginning and coming to an end consonants. Training went slowly, but as a result Two dolphins have learnt to carry out 15 commands of such character: etc. During experiment all notes emitted by dolphins, registered.

When training of animals has enough promoted, them have trained in a command “repeat” (Repeat just heard word). Experiments have not finished. Can To be, later dolphins and would start talking, though them did not learn practically to anything, with Than they can address to the person. However, it is good that before business Is not has reached. Scientists, of course, could execute some “requests” of a dolphin, like , but possibly were in a difficult situation, if It have suggested to strike a tail on water. Experiment of Batto has confirmed ability of dolphins To be guided in enough complex situation. During experience upon them fell The whole cascade of commands. The nickname of a dolphin at first was called, then the standard followed Command “forward” then the order on performance of one of 15 tasks was given Also proved to be true the order “carry out”. If the order has been executed correctly, The assessment “well” followed, and the animal was awarded by a small fish. In case of an error of a dolphin Shamed – “badly” and small fishes, naturally, did not give.

In other experiments as words of tongue to which tried to train dolphins, Casual notes were used. They designated usual subjects for animals And actions. For 4 months the dolphin has remembered names of three subjects and was trained To carry out three actions. Further the dolphin should execute the commands compounded From two words – actions and subject names on which action is referred. It was possible to compound nine offers of the mere verbiage learnt by a dolphin. The problem for an animal has appeared feasible.

In the experiments which have been carried out on other bunches of dolphins, a lexicon Sound commands or the signals submitted gestures, it was possible to finish to 25 and to learn Animals to carry out 45 dvuslovnyh orders. Dolphins have appeared are capable to perceive Commands from three words, but it was given to them hardly. Only half of such commands It was carried out correctly.

Experiments with an artificial language were npravleny on possibility revealing Its passive mastering, ability to perceive tongue but not to tell on it. Only In the latest time attempt is made to learn dolphins activly to use The learnt signals. As well as in the previous case, used tongue of notes and Gestures. Dolphins have learnt by means of “gestures” to ask fish, a toy or that Them have stroked. It is a little! Any with average abilities a dog without ours Special training itself “thinks out” a simple panel of communication signals For dialogue with us. It will bark at a door when it is necessary for it on street, to rattle Empty bowl if will feel thirst, and will bring a toy that with it have played.

Successes and in the field of studying delfinego tongue Are insignificant. Only zoologists and zoopsychologists Have achieved notable results. They have found the distress signal and a signal for expression The protest in the form of the special whistle reminding a shrill scratch, when to an animal Something very much is not pleasant. Sharp click – the danger warning. Yelping It is emitted during marriage games. The clap jaws means threat. Series loud, Quickly generated svistov are used at dialogue of mother with a cub or Between members of family bunch. With their help the lost kid calls mother, and The dolphin who has lagged behind the shoal asks it to wait.

Zoopsychologists have confirmed the assumption that each animal has the own Identification signal. When dolphin otsazhivajut in separate pool, it begins It continuously to generate, trying to reporting to members of the shoal where it follows To search. Sometimes animals generate another’s call signs. That it means, while is obscure. Perhaps, beasts as parrots, imitate each other, however it is not excluded, What is the invitation to communicate, addressed to quite certain member of the shoal.

We saw that in experiences of Bastiana dolphins communicated with the help Series eholokatsionnyh clicks. It is difficult to judge, whether it is casual or Bastianu was possible To find the important pattern. Clearly one that at dialogue of animals eholokatsionnye Clicks are of great importance. Many pay attention to it last years Visible domestic and foreign zoopsychologists. It is not necessary for dolphins specially To invent tongue. Eholokatsija discovers unique possibility for transfer most The various information. Time the dolphin is able eholokatsii to distinguish a hardhead with the help From a herring, it means distinctly represents, what kind should have ehosignal, Reflected from any of these fishes, and ability to zvukopodrazhaniju allows it To imitate these ehosignaly, sharing with companions on the shoal the saved up information. That is why at dialogue dolphins so often use lokatsionnymi parcels.

Use for an information transfer of spears of an echo can make dialogue very much The full. Really, lokatsionnaja a parcel, having returned to a dolphin a faint echo, Contains about the subject which has reflected it full enough information. Why now To dolphin not to repeat this ehosignal, but it is already loud, that all relatives heard Also have perceived, than one of them what he has received the information has become interested.

Use eholokatsionnyh parcels can be combined with application of the congenital Communication signals. It should look approximately so. We will assume that One of members of the shoal has found networks. Having felt danger, the dolphin submits svistovoj The alarm signal and simultaneously generates a repetition of an echo of that lokatsionnoj parcels, Which was reflected from a network. Thus, members of the shoal not only are warned About danger, but also are informed, in what it consists.

Zoologists, observing of behaviour of dolphins at liberty, for a long time have noticed that them Shoals often use scouts. Necessity for them arises in connection with that, That a transparency of water much more low, than air, and eholokator on range Actions strongly concedes to eyes of terraneous animals. The dense shoal of fishes dolphins Are capable to find metres for hundred, but on such distance cannot define Kind, size, and furthermore fatness and other major characteristics of extraction. In this case on rapprochement with it the dolphin-scout goes. It approaches To the shoal on enough short distance, lotsiruet it, collects the necessary information Also comes back to companions to transfer the data collected by it. Having familiarised With them, the herd will solve, whether to organise hunting or fish does not represent for them Interest.

Use eholokatsionnyh parcels – rather economical mean of an information transfer. Full to characterise surrounding subjects, it is necessary to spend a lot of time And it is a lot of words. For example, to explain to a companion that a subject which is At me in arms, is a steel ball in diameter of 50 millimetres, it is necessary Five words, and the dolphin receives this information in one short lokatsionnoj To the parcel reflected from a ball. It is necessary to reflect, whether the similar is expedient The mean for information encoding, whether will appear it suitable for ispolzovannija In technical communication channels.

In spite of the fact that between appearance on the earth of the cuttlefish and the person have passed Billions years, in the organisation of tissues of the excitatory ganglions of molluscums and tissues of the head Brain of the higher representatives of mammals there was no basic difference. The excitatory system of any organisms, as well as any other organ, is constructed of cells, The truth, cells rather original and highly skilled. On a constitution, character To activity and value they can be parted on two phylums – the excitatory and glial.

About glial cells here it will be told by the way, but not because their role It is insignificant or it is not enough of them. Glial cells surround neurones from different directions. It is supposed that they frame a leg for the excitatory cells and their thin processes, Supply all of them necessary, and can be, carry out also more important duties.

The Main working elements of a brain are neurones. These are surprising cells. From small, the irregular form of a body numerous processes depart. One From them happens especially long. It name an axon. The others – dendrites, They are shorter. Both an axon and dendrites strongly vetvjatsja, and an axon vetvitsja only on The extremity, and its other fulcrum of twigs does not give. If to draw a neurone an axon Upwards, it will remind the high and very thin arbour which has been pulled out from the earth With roots.

The Bizarre constitution of a neurone – not accident. Its each part carries out The special function. The neurocyton is its power centre and factory of the major The stuffs necessary for vital activity of the excitatory cell. Dendrites are designed For the information collecting. Their problem – to enlarge a neurone surface. That is why They it is strong vetvjatsja and form round a cell body dense brake. The majority of signals, Arriving in a neurone from its neighbours, it is intercepted by their uncountable processes.

Function of axons consists in signalling to other excitatory cells. It Only a conductor, a cable going from one department of the excitatory system another Or from the excitatory system in various organs and organism tissues. Usually an axon a little Its length, in comparison with the scanty dimensions of a body of the excitatory is more thin dendrites, and Cells, amazes. Neurones are among the fineest cells of an organism. The dimension of the majority from them usually does not exceed several tens micrometers, And the length of axons of the person is varied from 0,1 millimetres to 1 metre. That from Spinal cord to inform commands to the most remote muscles of feet or a tail at the large Animals, for example an elephant, a whale, they need to have length from 1,5 to 3 metres. At last, At a huge squid-arhiteutisa, together with the extended feelers of the reaching In length of 18 metres, the maximum length of axons there should not be less than 10 metres. Then that the process can be longer than own cell in millions times.

The Information from one excitatory cell to another is transferred in places of their contact. For this purpose here the special adaptations providing transition of excitation are formed From a neurone on a neurone. Them name synapses. The majority of synapses as it was already told, Hand over the information from an axon of one cell to a dendrite another, but are known and Other phylums of contacts: between an axon of one cell and a body another, between two Axons or two dendrites. Usually the neurone has from 1000 to 10000 synapses, Through which communicates with other neurones – receives from them Reports or shares with them data available at its order.

Complexity of a constitution of the excitatory cells strongly complicated their studying of the mutual Locating and the general device of the excitatory tissue. The matter is that a microscope not Gives possibilities to track from beginning to end neither the shortest axon, nor tiny Dendrite. The path of the excitatory processes is twisting. He is difficult for seeing in a dense interlacing The next processes and the glial cells surrounding a neurone from different directions. We will tell Frankly, as now arhitektonika many fields of a human brain it is studied Still insufficiently full, but nevertheless there was already a possibility to give the basic The scheme of their relative positioning and interaction.

The General principle of the device of a brain most correctly to present in the form of the schematic Images of a direction of streams of the information from their entering in the excitatory system To a direction of orders to executive powers. The brain receives the information From receptors. Here as the main working device the modified excitatory serves Cell. The problem is assigned to it to collect and transform the information, which Arrives from an external world, in electrical signals. Eye photoceptors react On light, olfactory and gustatory receptors – on chemical influences, tactile And sound – on mechanical. For the most different influences surrounding and intrinsic The world there are receptors, but the received information they translate into tongue Electrical impulses. Only in such kind it becomes clear for cells Brain.

The Information of receptors is addressed to the excitatory cells which, as a rule, are Here, outside of mogza. Processes of receptor cells are referred to these To neurones and near to them vetvjatsja. Thus, one receptor cell usually Sends a signal to many neurones. In turn, each of these neurones sends The axon in a brain to neurones of a following part which, as well as is necessary, shares On set of twigs and too hands over the information to many neurones, and those will readdress To its neurones of the next part.

Such mean of an information transfer at all does not mean that it in a trice will extend On all brain, and number of the neurones occupied in its processing, will grow as snow Clod. The matter is that each neurone of the first part receives the information not from one, And from set of receptors, and each neurone of the second part from set of neurones The first. So the information of the receptor cells which have escaped in a brain in a kind Thin streamlets and duplicated here the neurones responsible for its further Progression, can eventually is valid turn to a mighty stream, But it will begin to flow on the bed, without being splashed out for its coast.

So from a part to a part the information of receptors is transferred in a brain, yet will not reach Executive neurones which send commands to muscles or glands. Such parts At least there should be two-three, but usually happens much more. Unfortunately, Work of first and last one-two parts is studied at the best. Appreciable Successes are reached only in studying of visual system. Here an information path It is tracked to the sixth-seventh part neural chains, to the excitatory cells in the visual Fields of a cortex of the big hemispheres occupied with its analysis. That descends in averages Majority parts analizatornyh systems while it is not known almost. But This the most interesting as here there are sensations, is carried out a recognition Simple and complex stimuluses and somewhere here there are pantries of our memory. At last, in these parts there are emotions, thoughts, decisions are made, Speech is formed.

Information Pathes to a brain, of course, are not so rectilinear, as it is represented On our scheme. More often informatsi analyzers it is addressed in different districts of a brain Also follows there special roads. On roads of a brain an one-way traffic. The transferred information is not threatened with accident, interference with a counter stream, But it exists. Other highways are designed for it, too with secund Locomotion. They originate somewhere from average parts neural chains and serve For transfer to the analyzer of indicatings as it further to work, that is provide Activity resetting. The same counter roads provide “feedback”, As their physiologists, between executive powers and the command centres name Brain. They give the chance to executive powers – to muscles and glands – to report To the command centres about performance of their orders.

There are two more features of neural roads. The excitatory cells of each part not Only receive the information from neurones previous, but also communicate Among themselves by means of lateral communications. Besides, in each part of relaying Information along with the usual neurones serving the communication lines, can be And the so-called brake. Their impulses react, as red signals of traffic lights On our human highways, also are capable to suspend, reduce, and even completely To interrupt locomotion of a stream of the information.

So the brain device looks in the most general terms. From outside can seem, That we know about it very little. Really, yet so it is a lot of, but in Life all rather. To perceive the basic scheme of work of the device, compounded From billions elements, – huge, with what not comparable achievement. Studying Brain goes much faster, than it was possible to expect. We have left from start very much Far, and that to finish immeasurably further, should not confuse us. After all process Knowledge it is infinite, and secrets of substance, especially such complex and made, Are inexhaustible. But that is obscure today, becomes clear tomorrow and, of course, Will give a causing for new questions.

For our pupils only some words of human speech are commands, The others have no value. Much more important, they are told by what tint, In what situation as the master and variety of other fine features thus behaves Our behaviour, it is perfect for us imperceptible. It allows them very precisely To guess our desires, intentions and to react to them an adequate mode.

Speaking auks do not perceive a word meaning, which say. For Them human speech is at all a communication medium, not a song, And original sound game. However, it is thin analyzing the signals proceeding from Surrounding people, they are capable to catch and a situation short to bind to it separate Words and phrases and further to compound “statements” with feature Present situation. Mine amazon, having seen me in a window or having heard on a ladder mine Walks, starts to cry out heart-rendingly: and, having noticed in mine Arms the delicacy, shouts: . So call amazona. Choronomicly it looks As if the parrot wishes to tell: .

Many parrots perfectly remember, when it is necessary to speak , and when , also use only during the conforming time of days. An era with pleasure At any moment will tell to each again come visitor: “Greetings” and only in twilight: Such intelligent use of the words learnt by a parrot speaks That the auk heard them from us only in the conforming situations.

Because of surprisingly thin penetration into a situation quite often there are amusing Cases. A grey African parrot on a nickname Kuksi living in monogynopaedium of my friends, Often presents listeners with the bird’s wisdom. Kuksi it is strongly adhered to To the five years’ son of the master with whom it is ready to play for hours and hours, and to other members Monogynopaediums concerns rather friendly. Only with the aged grandmother at them mutual Antipathy. Every time, when the kid approached to a parrot to start the next Fuss, the grandmother indignantly demands, that the boy did not touch this disgusting Auk. Usually Kuksi patiently took down insults, but once has not sustained and has parried: , – though anybody specially did not learn to its this word. So in monogynopaedium named The little son when, having got naughty, it started someone to tease. From outside can To seem that the new word is used by a parrot quite meaningly, though it, Certainly, not so.

The Leningrad naturalist and writer A.Batuev has told some the amusing Stories from life of the parrots. An old sedate parrot zhako, for a long time the forgot To fly, has made friends with a female of a Senegalese parrot. In the morning as soon as discovered Doors of the bird’s apartments, krasnohvostyj the gentleman got on a roof of the Cells, and here arrived senegalochka. Auks is tender touched each other plumelets Also wasted other tendernesses. But female heart is changeable. Soon senegalochke The boyfriend bothered, and it went to travel on a room. It resulted zhako in otchanie. He started to run with emotion on a cell and to shout: The parrot knew more than 50 words, but from this store has chosen those, That more all approached to a case in point. After all the same told also to it, When he did not wish to go to the cell.

Other case from a collection of Batueva concerns to zheltohohlomu a cockatoo. It was Clever and sympathetic auk. When it happened to its mistress to begin to cry, he spoke To it a tender voice: About funnier episode has told Ornithologist K.N.Blagosklonov. The history concerned a speaking raven. The auk was Absolutely manual, and its freedom constrained nothing. Having returned from the next walk Home, the raven knocked a bill on glass and shouted:

Similar amusing stories descend and to each speaking parrot. Against Usual incoherent bird’s chatter they involuntarily attract attention and Are for a long time remembered. But at all seeming rationality of the bird’s replicas does not arise Doubts in that do not perceive value of said words of an auk. A manual raven, There is no time living in Leningrad zoological to the garden, on a question: whether – always answered:. It gave away the Same replica and at the sight of The favourite delicacy, but was not a case that it, hungering, itself, without the choronomic Stimulant, addressed with such request to attendants of a zoological garden. It is absolutely not known Authentic cases that the parrot managed to learn to ask to be eaten or drunk, When the auk feels thirst or will get hungry. To experts while it is not clear, why They do not do it.

Despite extensiveness of a lexicon, on accuracy of a pronunciation and intonations, On ability to a place a tax the replicas, nobody will risk to tell about such linguists, That they own human speech. The device of the vocal apparatus allows To parrots to be talented simulators, but at them in literal sense lacks Brains to use the talents for conscious information interchange With the master. Thus, auks have appeared are not capable to frame own The tongue comparable on value with human, to master our tongue. Unfortunately, Chatter of the parrots, drawing steadfast attention of scientists of the Middle Ages and At times bewilderment causing them, only objazjannichane.

Among objects of the scientific searches always causing in scientists stinging interest, There was a person, especially its psychics. Its various implications have got to sphere Attention of scientists how explorers have perceived that they are bound With a brain. Despite early arisen interest and constant attention to the various To implications of mental activity, at the beginning this direction of researches Educed extremely slowly. Only 100-150 years ago the first large have been made Discoverings also are thought up means for studying of the central excitatory system.

Slow development of a science about a brain should not surprise. A brain – the higher form organised Substances. On a planet the Earth is not present anything more complex. Besides there was an unusual Situation – the brain should learn itself. It is no wonder that before explorers Constantly there are stubborn problems. Often difficulties in brain studying Seemed absolutely insuperable, and at scientists arms alit. So there was a myth About nepoznavaemosti functions of a human brain, about impossibility to understand in The mechanisms controlling mental processes.

Especially willingly and persistently this myth sustains church. Forced to refuse From naive attempts to destroy Darvinism to brake physics and science development About space, it has concentrated the main attention to discredit of attempts of a science To inpour into secrets of cerebral activity, declaring their claim of scientists for the right eksperementirovat with divine, that is why and nepoznovaemoj soul, always the considered Unseparable ancestral lands of church.

This small book is devoted a brain. Its purpose – to acquaint the reader with that, As the brain, as from knowledge of the most thin details of a constitution of marrow is studied And studying of the processes descending on molecular level, the path is laid To understanding of activity of the most small structural unit of a brain – the excitatory Cells. The path from it goes to knowledge of physiological bases of mental activity, To mechanisms of activity of neural ensembles, the whole departments of a brain, and then To disclosing of mechanisms of the higher forms of mental activity of a human brain.

It is significant that this book will be issued in Leningrad. Here ones and a half Blepharons ago the new scientific discipline – physiology of a brain has arisen and have been offered Many major methods of studying of the central excitatory system. Here, In Petersburg – Petrograd – Leningrad, such coryphaeuses of the domestic worked And world natural sciences, as I.M.Setchenov, I.P.Pavel, N.E.Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A.Orbeli, led the huge contribution to the brain studying, laid Path for its further studying by a world science. Here for the first time have arisen Also the scientific physiological first in our country continue to educe successfully Schools.

Self-denying workers of the Leningrad physiological schools are devoted by the author The work.

At hemispheres-twins the various approach to the decision of challenges. Left, considering Any problem, the logic apparatus of ideational activity uses. However, That creatively it to comprehend, it obviously insufficiently. The intuition is necessary, And it is the major function of the right hemisphere. The left twin in each problem Excretes the major, key moments and, leaning against them, tries to solve a problem. But, if it it appears insufficiently, it is powerless. The right hemisphere covers Problem as a whole. It easily forms various associations and with a great speed Touches variants that helps it to understand a situation and to state a hypothesis, To formulate idea, let even crazy, but usually non-standard, and it is frequent And correct.

The Right hemisphere – sphere unconscious. Ideational operations are carried out In the right hemisphere it is reserved, irrespective of left, and it has possibility to get acquainted Only with definitive result of this work. Therefore the left hemisphere commanding All and everything, not in a state to interfere with this undercover activity and cannot To ruin on a root conceiving to arise the idea which has seemed to it unexpected And paradoxical. Creative activity of the right hemisphere, completely protected From an intervention of sceptically adjusted neighbour with its verbal thinking and Logic of traditional common sense, allows it to frame the courageous scientific Hypotheses to inpour into secrets micro- and a macroworld.

The Left hemisphere constantly shows barstvennost. It has got used, that to it All has been subordinated, all ran errands for it. When the left hemisphere is occupied Any problem, all brain works on it, apparently. Simultaneously with By this creative work of logically conceiving hemisphere can be carried out only Automated enough processes: slow walking, driving Somewhere on silent country highway, nasvistyvanie a simple melody, game On musical instruments. The automated work, framing conditions for concentration, To some extent even helps ideational activity. A right hemisphere, On the contrary, it is noiseproof. It is capable to work in any situation and is valid Slaves away and when its left colleague is occupied rather qualified Work and when he has a rest, and even during our sleep. Work of the right hemisphere Disturbs to nothing, does not distract our brain from others important and urgent matters.

Inspiration which can come to us and when we sleep and when our brain is occupied Absolutely other work, – result of creativity of the right hemisphere. Perhaps, We in vain named the thinker of its colleague? No, errors have not descended. In itself The right hemisphere – not the creator. To achieve something acceptable, for it it is necessary Choronomic stimulant. It is a duty of the left hemisphere. It formulates a problem, Over which it is necessary to work to the right colleague. Besides, careless, cheeful, The enthusiastic left hemisphere supplies from time to time the assistant due Store of energy, good mood, unreasonable, but so necessary confidence In final success and when the problem will be executed, involves all logic The apparatus to analyse the assumption of the silent worker. But here Again the right hemisphere interferes. It, with the gloomy, sceptical approach, With constant fears, it forces the left hemisphere not to be forgotten for pleasure, Does not allow to it to soar in clouds, does not allow to accept in a hurry a splinter of the bottle Glasses for a brilliant, and forces to comprehend the most scrupulous mode the arisen Idea and to draw the definitive conclusion about its suitability. Thus, the contribution The right hemisphere in ideational activity, in working out of scientific problems Can be at all less, than left.

And nevertheless in one question our hemispheres are not equal in rights. Work of the right is carried out Automatically, under in advance set programs, and left controls Mental processes, makes decisions on any questions, and right submits To it implicitly. The commander for a brain, undoubtedly, is the left hemisphere, And with it it is necessary to be considered.

An one-man management Principle – a necessary working condition of a brain. When urgently it is required To make the decision, discussions are inadmissible. The slightest disagreements would bring to nothing Joint efforts of the big parencephalons on performance of the major mental Functions. After all on a vessel – one captain which orders are obligatory for All command. A motor vehicle one driver individually controls. If them was Two, number of failures on transport would increase in tens times. That is why between The big cerebral hemispheres so accurately differentiate duties, and, Reacting simultaneously, they never each other disturb, but on mutual aid Do not stint.

And absolutely it is no wonder that on our planet is not present mnogogolovyh beings. They Simply would not sustain a competition with odnogolovymi. Though the human brain has Two hemispheres, mental processes are formed at us differently, than at animals, podvergshihsja to a corpus collosum section, and the more so not how at Zmeja Gorynycha. Style and principles of work of a human brain are borrowed at odnogolovogo, but Two-faced Janus. And in it our happiness. Even for the decision of our usual daily Has put the uniform brain, one mind definitely considerably is better, than a little.

So, specialisation of the big hemispheres of a human brain is not casual Nature error, not amusing paradox, and an absolute must, stolbovoj a path Developments of our brain.

Still more recently the right hemisphere of a human brain doctors and physiologists Unanimously considered as the idler and the parasite. Besides that it resolutely evades From participation in the major kinds of human activity, in speech functions, It the shirker, not wishing to soil the arm, and not able to carry out a little The qualified work. Really, left arm over which the right supervises Hemisphere, it is absolutely helpless and physically lags behind other arm-truzhenitsy.

Time deenergizing of functions of the right hemisphere does not cause difficulties in analysis Human speech, does not break ability to speak. The levopolusharnyj person, It is necessary for underlining, finds surprising garrulity, if Not to tell – becomes talkative. He continually starts talking to acquaintances and Strangers, shares the impressions, on each question states The opinion. If it not to constrain, and to make it sometimes hardly, the initiative Conversation passes in his hands.

Speech of the person with the switched off right hemisphere becomes richer, appear He tries to shine the new words, new complex turns, any affected question With all details. Phrases become long and are under construction of long words. The design of phrases becomes complicated, the quantity increases in them office and auxiliary Words. It appears, at time nonparticipation in the general cerebral activity right, “Silent” hemisphere, its speaking left partner becomes the talker. Then What is the hemisphere usually holds in shorah the colleague, does not allow to it to disperse, Does not let out from under the vigilant control.

Despite the raised garrulity, examinees after the right-hand Shock do not become pleasant interlocutors. The voice at them happens deaf person, hoarse, Lisping or barking. Sometimes they start to stammer. Speech loses the habitual Rhythm. The phrase begun by a low voice, can end unnaturally loudly, Shrillly. Accents and in separate words, and in the whole phrases constantly appear Not there, where they would need to be, that is why not at once you will perceive that the person wanted To tell. Speech becomes arrhythmic, sometimes intermittent, logic and emotional Pauses disappear. Sometimes there are unnatural intonations cutting audition. In general, The voice always considerably varies, losing the individual traits, becoming Less expressive. On intonation it becomes more difficult to perceive, whether pleases the person That he tells, or afflicts, whether it asks a question or tries to joke.

The Problem on restraint logically conceiving and consequently a little torn off From reality of the left colleague is, obviously, one of the major Duties of the right hemisphere. It prevents to show to the left hemisphere the special Eagerness and as much as possible to exert at perception and analysis of speech notes. Here Why at the moment of its deenergizing accuracy of an identification of all elements is enriched Speeches.

The Explorers who for the first time have faced this phenomenon, did not know, how it to estimate. Left that the right hemisphere not only itself does not work, but seriously disturbs Daily activity of a brain. Certainly, it not so! It at all does not disturb to the left To hemisphere correctly to accept speech, and simply regulates level of its working capacity In full conformity with requirements of the given moment. It is irrational, that All ranges of a brain always worked with a full load. Such work neekonomna, And in it there is no special necessity. The right hemisphere honesty helps the To the left colleague to work rationally, without troubling itself excessive loads.

Except the help to the to the neighbour the right hemisphere has also own, quite independent Duties. As it is known, we learn well familiar people not only in the person, But also on a voice. It occupies exclusively right hemisphere. At the moment of its deenergizing The examinee ceases to distinguish voices even the most close people. It not in a state To define, who from bunch of interlocutors has addressed to it with a question, if in this The moment did not look at their persons. With the switched off right hemisphere the person not in a state Even to distinguish a man’s voice from the female. For it there is not clear a sense Intonations. We can not catch the words turned to us, but their intonation allows To guess that to us have addressed with a question, have reported to us something cheerful or, On the contrary, sad. The left hemisphere scoops these data from character most Reports or receives them by grammatical analysis of the heard statement. The right hemisphere supplements the information collected thus and specifies by Analysis of intonations.

At deenergizing of the right hemisphere the world of notes grows dim. Everything that is not Human speech, ceases to excite, attract attention. A roar of the spring Thunder, kurlykane cranes in the autumn sky, infectious laughter of the child, kukarekane Cock – all seems uniform, uninteresting hum. Because of disability to understand In all diverse scale of household and connatural hums examinees cannot receive Pleasures from the performance heard by radio. Cheerful reknock of the maiden Heels on stone steps of a ladder, the tender trills of a nightingale supplementing the poetic Picture of night, tragical note of a shot, howl air-raid warning sirens – all Merges in uniform hum, at all without helping to accept a dramatized programme, But only preventing to penetrate into its maintenance.

The music World is accessible only to the right hemisphere. After a right-hand electroshock Music ceases to interest examinees. They are not capable to notice the essential Differences between two musical phrases if their rhythm coincides, do not learn Melodies of familiar songs, fragments from shirokoizvestnyh pieces of music. The person loses ability and desire to sing. Even at music underneath It godlessly is false. It is interesting that ability to learn a melody is recovered After a right-hand shock much earlier, than ability to sing. Whether it is necessary to speak, That by ability to execute a piece of music too it is broken together with disorder Other musical abilities. It is complicated also because at game on Many musical instruments, in particular on a violin, the left arm, rukovodimoj The right, musical hemisphere, the most responsible part of the performing trusts Activity, and it is difficult to count that in its inactivation work of this Arms it will appear at height.

After a right-hand shock for 10-20 minutes motorial functions are broken. The person cannot independently put on. Difficulties cause sleeves, long Tails of the dressing gown, buttons, a girdle. After deenergizing of the right hemisphere the person as Would forget, where at it an arm and a foot. It is difficult to carry out actions, for realisation Which the exact locating of parts of the body is necessary to know. It is difficult to recollect, Where right and where the left arm, is even more difficult to show the right arm at any of the present.

At the moment of deenergizing of the right hemisphere the person ceases to notice that is At the left. If to ask to tell that he sees in a picture which is at it Before eyes, he will tell only that is located in its centre and on the right. About that is drawn in the left part, it will not be told words. It has dropped out from Fields of vision. Drawing itself, the examinee will occupy only the right part of a paper. Left Parts of the represented subjects will appear not finished. At a figure at the left it will not appear Neither arms, nor feet, at a camomile petals will be drawn only in the right part Flower. Marksmen on hours by all means will be referred to the right, and all digits from 1 to 12 too begin to be restricted in the right part of a dial. In the opened book the examinee Will read only the right page. A note distributed at the left, he will accept as a note, Sounded on the right.

Figurative memory – function of the right hemisphere. After its deenergizing she is upset. The examinee without surprise will look at the cow without a tail, on a horse with drooped, As at spanielja, ears or on a lion in graceful kidskin gloves. It it is simple not Will notice in disharmony drawings.

Levopolusharnomu to the person is difficult to remember complex figures if for them it is impossible To select names, but it will perfectly keep a mere verbiage, a phrase or verses in memory. To it, undoubtedly, abstract representations are more accessible. Sorting tablets with the Roman And the Arabian digits, such person will combine in one small group of the five, and in another tens Irrespective of the fact which they have a tracing. The majority of visual problems Causes difficulty. It is difficult to find eyes on a regiment the necessary subject, difficultly To keep on it a view, it is absolutely impossible to track a moving subject. Even the most enthusiastic admirer of football at the moment of an inactivation of the right hemisphere Loses interest to sports game. It will not sit down to the TV as cannot To understand an event on the screen so, and will not receive pleasure. But To listen to the sports commentator will not refuse. In a verbal kind the information Will easily find road to its brain.

With deenergizing of the right hemisphere the world of paints grows dull. In it it becomes difficult To understand. The person starts to confuse colours, well and to catch differences in their brightness And it appears saturations even. Can seem unexpected that in The moment of functional deenergizing of the right hemisphere when the surveyed test Obvious difficulties in definition of flowers, they start to use in the speech Such shades as “turquoise”, “pale-yellow”, “terracotta”, “ultramarines”. This left, liberated “talkative” hemisphere, trying to compensate difficulties In analysis of flowers, gives refined notations, taking them from depths of the memory.

The Right hemisphere manages figurative vision of the world. That is why in absence Functions of the left hemisphere at full or, anyway, appreciable disturbance Speech and the defects of thought processes bound to it at examinees remain Musical and art abilities. To it testify also behaviour Examinees and observation of physicians over people with brain damage. For example, known The Hungarian sculptor of Beni Ferentsi which have lost speech owing to disturbance of a circulation In the left hemisphere that was accompanied by a paralysis right arms and feet, continued To work as the left arm. However, in its water colours some uncertainty was felt Lines to hold a brush the left arm it really and has not got used, but sculptural Products remained, undoubtedly, at former level.

The Inactivation of the right hemisphere does not lead to disturbance readings letters, If, of course, the person uses alphabetic system of writing. But for Chineses participation of the right hemisphere at a tracing of hieroglyphs is absolutely necessary. Hieroglyphs in essence are strongly stylised drawings representing That subject which they designate. The visual perception is bound to work Occipitoparietal ranges of the right hemisphere. At their inactivation it is broken. Examinees do not learn even is realistic the represented subjects. It is no wonder, That ability to perceive the text written by means of hieroglyphs, at them completely It is lost. If thus they keep ability to learn the letter, as less Complex signs reading and the letter in the European tongues does not suffer.

Similarly at an inactivation of the right hemisphere it is broken zhestikuljatsionnaja Speech of the surdomute people using zhestovym tongue of phylum amslena, where everyone Gesture designates a certain subject, action or concept. If the person Has seized the manual alphabet, in which each letter there corresponds the special Gesture, or is trained usual sound tongue, ability to use them does not suffer. This function is bound to the left hemisphere, and the dictionary of hieroglyphs and figurative gestures Tongue of deaf-mutes it is stored at right-handed persons in the right hemisphere.

Thus, feature of the left hemisphere is knack To work with sign systems. Whatever form accepted the human speech, More truly, whatever signs coded its words, analysis and synthesis their beret On itself the left hemisphere. It treats it and analyzes visually accepted Reports of signs on the manual alphabet of deaf-mutes also synthesises reciprocal speech from The same chains of the motorial certificates which are letter marks. Hence, For the left hemisphere the principle of use of signs, and a mean of their encoding is important Has no value. It works as skilled shifrovalshchik, passing from one Code to another. Such kind of activity is inaccessible to the right hemisphere.

The Inactivation or damage of the right hemisphere does not break the oral account. The person Without effort will count up number number of subjects being before it, will solve in mind Simple example. The account, a quantitative assessment of world around, as well as others Actions with abstract concepts, – a field of activity of a dominant hemisphere. And the written image of numbers irrespective of the fact which they have a tracing – Roman or Arabian, is closer to hieroglyphs and consequently memory of them is stored in The right hemisphere.

The Ancient person used rock paintings for an information transfer. Them Laconic style reminds modern caricatures. A series of the stylised drawings-pictogrammes Could transfer the complex report. They are clear all. Not casually pictogrammes Became an international language and surround us everywhere. The greatest diffusion Have road pictogrammes. The image crossed out by red line of the car, The person who is coming downstairs, marksmen of turns are clear to everyone without the special Explanations. Pictogrammes are used at building of topographical plans, electron Schemes, for every possible indexes. Pictographic symbols too are stored in The right hemisphere, and at its inactivation their understanding can appear broken. Without participation of the right hemisphere it is impossible neither to frame, nor to read stories in Pictures – pictographic texts. After a right-hand electroshock examinees Will not cope with a simple problem – to spread out in the necessary order simple pictures, That from them the coherent story has turned out.

It is interesting that unlike written speech which the left hemisphere manages, The musical letter – record of music by means of musical signs – is in conducting The right hemisphere. In it memory and of musical notes, and of the musical is combined Signs, and about means of their use. In the medical literature it is described a little Cases when outstanding musicians because of damage of the left hemisphere lost Speech, but the professional skills in full kept. So, French Composer Moris Ravel owing to a paralysis has lost a speech power and ability to write, But continued to compose successfully music and itself wrote down the products on a paper Musical signs.

The Right hemisphere of a human brain deals with concrete figurative impressions. After its inactivation at examinees the visual perception is complicated, and accepted The world is poor. Deenergizing of functions of the right hemisphere does not break orientation in Time and space. The person names year, month and number, and having looked at a dial Hours even if on them there are no digits, by position of fingers will define, which now Hour. Without reflecting the address and addresses of the friends will reporting, will tell, to whom What transport to reach easier. All these data are stored in speech memory. But orientation in a situation to its concrete signs is broken. A simple question About in what season there was an action of just seen television Film, will cause serious difficulties. He will not tell simply – winter, and will answer, That time everywhere lies snow, that, most likely, it is winter.

Whether